Dictionary: English Grammar Terms

An apostrophe (‘) is one of the punctuation marks which is used for two basic purposes.

For example,

1. It is used to show possession

2. It is used to show the omission

Now, I will provide a few examples. Read them to know about the above purposes.

Use Apostrophe to show Possession

As you know that possession is used to refer the state of owning something, it means that apostrophes are used to show someone’s possession about something.

For example,

• This is, actually, John’s ball that you are holding.

In the above example, you can see that an apostrophe with an –s has been put just after the name John, which shows possession. It means that the ball belongs to John. He is the one who is the owner of that ball.

More examples:

1. The girl’s play area was so beautifully arranged.

2. I have borrowed my sister’s drawing pencils.

3. I saw a terrible accident of Leo’s car.

Rules to Follow for Forming Possessives

1. You have to add an –s after the apostrophe. For example, girl’s room, John’s laptop, sister’s bag, monkey’s face, group’s work, children’s place, etc.

2. If there is a joint possession, remember to add an –s at the end of the last word. For example, uncle and aunt’s place, John and my sister’s wedding function, Leo, Twain and Jamie’s home, etc.

3. If a plural noun already ends in –s, then you do not need to add another –s. In this case, remember to add an apostrophe just after –s. For example, girls’ bedroom, learners’ notebooks, monkeys’ food, kids’ wear, etc.

Check Out: What Is An Antecedent?

Use Apostrophe to show Omission

Omission means that something is excluded. It means that you can use apostrophes when letters are excluded or omitted from words.

For example,

• I don’t have any problem if you want to stay here.

In the above example, you can see an apostrophe in ‘don’t’. Don’t is the short form for ‘do not’.

More examples:

1. He’ll not join us tonight because he’s not feeling well.

2. Please! Avoid going outside; it’s so hot.

3. He didn’t write this for you.

Rules to Follow for Omission

In this case, find out that place where the letters are omitted; that will be the place to add an apostrophe.

For example,
1. Do not > don’t
2. Should not > shouldn’t
3. Did not > didn’t
4. Cannot > can’t
5. Would not > wouldn’t
6. Will not > won’t
7. She would , she had > she’d
8. I am > I’m

Common Mistakes with Apostrophes

Apostrophes are often misused, especially in these two common areas:

• Using Apostrophes for Plurals: Apostrophes should not be used to form plurals.
  Error: “The cat’s are playing outside.”
  Correction: “The cats are playing outside.” (No apostrophe needed)
• Its vs. It’s:
  Its is a possessive pronoun (e.g., “The dog wagged its tail”).
  It’s is a contraction for “it is” or “it has” (e.g., “It’s raining today”). Confusing these two is a frequent mistake.

Style Guide Differences in Apostrophe Usage

Different style guides have varied rules for apostrophe use, particularly with singular nouns ending in “s”:

• AP Style: Recommends adding just an apostrophe without an additional “s” (e.g., “Chris’ book”).
• Chicago Manual of Style: Suggests adding an ‘s for singular nouns ending in “s” (e.g., “Chris’s book”).
• British vs. American English: British English often omits the extra “s” for proper names ending in “s,” while American English tends to add it depending on the style guide followed.

What Did You Learn?

Apostrophe is a punctuation mark (‘) which is used to show possession or to show the omission of letters.

In English grammar, an antecedent can be any noun that is usually referred back by a pronoun. For instance,

• Sarah was with her friends. I am sure, they went to their favorite spot.

In the above example, the antecedent is ‘Sarah and her friends’ who is linked to the personal pronoun ‘they’. You must note here that without an antecedent, you cannot identify who is basically a pronoun in a sentence.

Like, if we remove the first sentence and only mention ‘I am sure, they went to their favorite spot’, then it would be impossible for anyone to know about ‘they’. So, it is necessary for an antecedent to be identified before a pronoun. In this case, the antecedent, ‘Sarah and her friends’, helps a person know about ‘they’.

Use of Antecedent and Pronoun within a Sentence

You have seen in the above discussion that there are two separate sentences. First one has an antecedent and the next one is referring back to that antecedent with a personal pronoun.

However, in this case, it is not the strict rule of having two separate sentences. Some sentences have an antecedent and a pronoun used in the same sentence. For instance,

•  Sarah likes to sing her own song.

In the above example, you can see that there is a personal pronoun ‘her’. This case is acceptable because the antecedent ‘Sarah’ stands for this particular personal pronoun.

However, if you remove the antecedent ‘Sarah’, then it would be impossible for anyone to identify ‘her’. So, in this case, the antecedent is important to be identified before the pronoun is used.

Examples of Antecedents with Different Types of Pronouns

With Personal Pronouns > I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them.

1. My mother loves to paint her own imagination.

2. Jack has slept, that is why he cannot join the evening party.

3. The Led is pretty awesome. I really liked its new features.

With Relative Pronouns > where, which, whom, who, that.

1. I met the girl who was crying yesterday at the stadium.

2. The floral printed dress that you liked is one of my most favorite dresses.

3. I will meet you at the side road, where you used to go every morning.

With Demonstrative Pronouns > this, these, that, those.

1. I cannot believe that you actually created your own painting without any help. This is looking beautiful and amazing.

2. You need to be focused and well disciplined. These are the two main important points to be a successful business man.

3. Sarah wants to get top grades in her final exams. That will help her in earning a good reputation.

Note: In all of the above examples, you can see that singular antecedents are following singular pronouns. On the other hand, plural antecedents need to be followed plural pronouns.

Sometimes, it happens that writers do use singular pronouns with plural antecedents or plural pronouns with singular antecedents. You must be very careful about it as; it will be considered your writing grammatically incorrect.

Check Out: Abstract and Concrete Noun.

Common Errors in Antecedent-Pronoun Agreement

Understanding and adhering to proper antecedent-pronoun agreement is crucial for clarity and accuracy in writing. Here are some common errors writers make in this area, along with examples and corrections to help avoid these pitfalls.

1. Incorrect Pronoun Use

One of the most prevalent mistakes involves using pronouns that do not match the number or gender of their antecedents. This often occurs when writers inadvertently use plural pronouns for singular antecedents or fail to maintain gender agreement.

Example:
Each student must submit their project by Friday. (Incorrect)
Correction:
Each student must submit his or her project by Friday. (Correct)

In the first sentence, “their” is incorrectly used to refer to the singular antecedent “each student.” Using “his or her” maintains the singular agreement and ensures clarity.

2. Ambiguous Antecedents

Ambiguity arises when the antecedent is unclear, making it difficult for readers to determine which noun the pronoun refers to. This can create confusion and misunderstandings in communication.

Example:
When Mike and John were discussing, he said that they should leave early. (Ambiguous: Who is “he”?)
Correction:
When Mike and John were discussing, Mike said that they should leave early. (Clear antecedent)

In the original sentence, “he” could refer to either Mike or John, creating uncertainty. The corrected version clarifies that it was Mike who made the statement.

3. Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (e.g., team, group, committee) can complicate pronoun agreement since they can be singular or plural depending on context. This often leads to the misuse of plural pronouns.

Example:
The team lost their game. (Commonly accepted in informal contexts, but “the team” is singular.)
Correction:
The team lost its game. (Correct formal usage)

In this example, “the team” is a singular noun referring to a single unit, so the correct pronoun is “its.” Using “their” implies multiple teams, which is incorrect in this context.

What Did You Learn?

Antecedent is a noun which is referred back by a pronoun. There is a link between an antecedent and a pronoun. Without an antecedent, one cannot understand to whom a pronoun is referring. So, it is necessary for an antecedent to be identified before.

Antithesis is that rhetorical or literary device in which there are two opposite ideas used together in a sentence to form a contrasting effect. A parallel structure is used to show this contradiction.

For example,

• We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools. (Martin Luther King Jr.)

In the above example, you can see that the famous Martin Luther King Jr. has used a parallel structure in his quote, which makes this sentence an antithetical one. The words ‘brothers’ and ‘fools’ or ‘live’ and ‘perish’ can be said as contradictory elements. These words are not exact opposites; but they are creating a contrasting effect which is effective for an antithetical statement.

Apart from this discussion, in this particular quote, the speaker is talking about the importance of humanity that everyone should live together as brothers, without any fight or conflict.

Why Writers or Speakers use Antithesis?

Just like the other literary devices, an antithesis is also an effective device in communicating ideas. The contradictory elements used in antithetical statements can be used to express a particular point that a writer or a speaker is trying to communicate.

It can be a useful tool in making a text rich and memorable to read. The contrasts used in such statements are strict and can be humorous or ironic. The readers should be clever enough to get what the writer is trying to communicate because writers can be very ironic in nature. Sometimes, writers use antithesis in order to pass on some comments in an indirect way. So, readers should have the capability to get those hidden meanings.

Without any purpose, a writer does not use antithesis. Writers do use antithesis with intentions and plans.

In literature, there are hundreds of examples of antithesis as; writers do need such kind of literary devices to communicate their thoughts. One of the most famous examples of antithesis used by Alexander Pope is in his famous ‘An Essay of Criticism’, in which he says,

‘To err is human; to forgive divine.’

In this antithetical statement, Pope reveals the truth by using two contradictory ideas. He is trying to reveal that human beings are imperfect and make mistakes but god is the most forgiving. Two contradictory ideas can be perfection (god) and imperfection (humans) because the erring human beings always make mistakes and commit sins.

Types of Antithesis

Antithesis can be presented in different forms, depending on how the opposing ideas are structured within the sentence. Here are two key types:

1. Simple Antithesis

A simple antithesis is the direct opposition of two ideas in a single sentence, often using a parallel structure. This form is straightforward and concise, making it easy for the audience to grasp the contrasting elements.

Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” – Charles Dickens

2. Complex Antithesis

A complex antithesis involves contrasts embedded in longer or more intricate sentences. These antithetical elements may span multiple ideas, often using layered parallel structures to present the opposition in a more nuanced way.

Example: “We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools.” – Martin Luther King Jr.

Check Out: What is an Antecedent?

Antithesis in Famous Quotes

1. Speech is silver, but silence is gold.

2. It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. (Charles Dickens)

3. Folks who have no vices have very few virtues. (Abraham Lincoln)

4. Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. (Aristotle)

5. Give me some sunshine, Give me some rain, Give me another chance I wanna grow up once again. (Swanand Kirkire)

6. Although the world is full of suffering, it is also full of the overcoming of it. (Helen Keller)

What Did You Learn?

Writers or speakers use antithesis in order to communicate a point by the help of two contradictory elements. In antithetical statements, a parallel structure is used to show the contradiction. The contrasts can be humorous or ironic.

Open and close ended questions: These are the types of questions that you can come across in job interviews, projects, or surveys.

What are Open-ended Questions?

Open-ended questions are such questions that do not restrict someone in giving answers. People can answer freely without having any word limit or options (like yes or no).

The answers of such questions are usually longer. You can find out such answers, mainly, in job interviews. However, a few people may ask open-ended questions in surveys as well; but, in surveys, you may find out two-three questions, that are open-ended questions, out of 20 or more.

Following is the list of a few open-ended questions that you can come across in job interviews.

• How can you describe yourself?
• Can you list some of your strengths and weaknesses?
• Why do you want to work here?
• If you get hired, how can you help this company?
• Tell me something about this company.
• Where do you see yourself five years from now?
• Tell me something about your greatest achievement.

When to Use Open-ended Questions

Open-ended questions are most effective in situations that require in-depth insights or detailed responses. These are ideal for job interviews, where candidates can elaborate on their experiences and skills, or in brainstorming sessions, where creative ideas need to flow freely.

They are also used in qualitative research to understand participants’ thoughts, opinions, and behaviors without restrictions. Open-ended questions encourage thoughtful, detailed answers, making them useful when deeper information is needed.

Job Interview: “Can you describe a challenging project you worked on and how you managed it?”

Check Out: What Is a Clause?

What are Close-ended Questions?

Close-ended questions are such questions that require a particular answer or may have specific options to select. They are very specific in a sense that the answers for such questions may be of one word or it could be very short. Close-ended questions can be very complicated in nature.

For instance, most of the close-ended questions may contain a yes or no answer. So, sometimes, a person can get confused whether to choose a yes or no without any debate. These types of questions are most likely to be asked on surveys because they are easy to analyze as a statistical data.

Following are a few close-ended questions for a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.

• Are you a graduate?
• May you help me please?
• Are you going to visit her or not?
• Do you want to become a doctor?
• Is this dress looking good on me?

Other examples of close-ended questions

• What is your date of birth?
• Does it contain salt or sugar?

The above examples do not expect a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer but the answers of these questions will be of one or two words.

When to Use Close-ended Questions

Close-ended questions are best used in contexts that require quick, specific answers or measurable data, such as surveys, polls, or assessments.

These questions are straightforward and easy to analyze, making them ideal for gathering large amounts of quantifiable data quickly, especially in customer satisfaction surveys or demographic questions. Their simplicity helps in creating clear, actionable results.

Customer Satisfaction Survey: “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with our service?”

Hybrid Questions: Combining Open and Close-ended Questions

Hybrid questions blend both open-ended and close-ended formats, allowing respondents to provide a specific answer first, followed by an opportunity to elaborate if needed.

These questions are useful in scenarios where a clear initial response is required, but additional context can be valuable, such as in feedback forms or post-event surveys. Moreover, hybrid questions balance brevity with depth, improving the quality of the feedback.

Event Feedback: “Did you enjoy the event? If yes, what did you like the most?”

What Did You Learn?

Open-ended question is the opposite of a close-ended question. Close-ended questions expect a particular short answer whereas; open-ended questions do not expect a particular answer and are not specific in nature.

A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun. It means that a common noun can be any person, place or a thing which is not specific; that is why we do not need to start it with a capital letter.

For example,

•  boy
• bed
• pencils
• house
• car
• cats

You can see in the above examples, there is a person ‘boy’, things ‘pencils, bed, house, and car’, and animal ‘cats’. So, a common noun can be singular or plural like, cat-cats, pencil-pencils, boy-boys, etc.

More About Common Nouns

There are a few categories of a common noun. Let me list them for you.

• Countable Nouns: The things that you can count are known as countable nouns. For example, pens, animals, girls, cities, dresses, etc.

• Non-countable Nouns: The things that you cannot count are non-countable nouns. For example, water, air, carbon dioxide, sound, etc.

• Abstract Nouns: Things that you can touch or see are called abstract nouns. For example, love, courage, passion, etc.

• Concrete Nouns: Things that you can touch or see are concrete nouns. For example, book, bag, chair, etc.

• Collective Nouns: A collective noun represents a group. For example, family, army, staff, etc.

• Compound Nouns: The nouns that contain more than one noun are called compound nouns. For example, martial-law, waterfall, etc.

• Verbal Nouns: A verbal noun shows action (verb). For example, cooking, writing, walking, etc.

• Gender-specific Nouns: Nouns that are gender-specific (male or female) are called gender-specific nouns. For example, sister, son, actor, etc.

Common Noun vs. Proper Noun

Common Noun: You can only capitalize it when it comes at the beginning of a sentence. Otherwise, you do not need to capitalize a common noun within a sentence. For example,

1. Boys are playing in the playground. (Correct)

2. The boys were asked to play in the playground. (Correct)

Both of the above examples are correct. In the first example, ‘boys’ is capitalized because it is the very first word of the sentence. It may not be capitalized when it comes within a sentence, just like in the second example.

See an incorrect sentence below.

• The Boys were asked to play in the playground. (Incorrect)

Proper Noun: that can be any person, place, or a thing which is specific or particular. It is necessary to capitalize a proper noun whether it comes at the beginning or within a sentence because it always refers to a specific person, place, thing, or an idea. It can be the names of days or months; or any title of a book, movies, or plays. For example,

• Switzerland
• Albert Einstein
• Pacific Ocean
• The Oxford University
• Simon
• Honda
• Romeo and Juliet
• Tuesday
• January

Let us check out the use of proper nouns within a sentence.

1. They were talking about Simon, who is my best friend.

2. You are as smart as Albert Einstein.

3. I love eating Nutella; the yummiest of all.

How a Common Noun Evolves into Proper Noun

Common nouns can transform into proper nouns when they start representing a specific person, place, brand, or entity, rather than a general idea.

This often happens in cases where a word gains significance in a particular context, often through branding, historical events, or popular culture. As proper nouns refer to specific things, they are always capitalized, unlike their common noun counterparts.

• Common Noun: apple (a general type of fruit)
• Proper Noun: Apple (a well-known technology brand)

In this case, “apple” is a common noun referring to the fruit. However, once the word “Apple” became associated with the tech giant, it became a proper noun, representing a specific brand.

• Common Noun: amazon (a large river in South America)
• Proper Noun: Amazon (a global e-commerce company)

While “amazon” originally referred to the famous river or even mythical female warriors, it later evolved into a proper noun with the founding of the e-commerce giant Amazon.

Common Noun and Pronoun: What’s the Difference?

Common nouns name general people, places, things, or ideas, while pronouns are used to replace those common nouns in sentences.

Pronouns help avoid repetition by standing in for nouns that have already been mentioned. They are a type of shorthand that makes communication smoother, particularly in longer texts or conversations.

For instance, once a common noun is introduced, a pronoun can be used to replace it to avoid redundancy.

• Common Noun: boy
• Pronoun: he

Sentence: The boy was playing outside. He was very happy.

Here, “boy” is the common noun, and “he” is the pronoun used to replace it in the second sentence, avoiding the need to repeat “the boy.”

• Common Noun: pencil
• Pronoun: it

Sentence: She picked up the pencil. It was very sharp.

In this example, “pencil” is the common noun, while “it” serves as the pronoun that replaces “pencil” in the second sentence.

Pronouns simplify language by standing in for common nouns, making writing and speech more efficient and less repetitive.

What Did You Learn?

So, a common noun can be any place, person, thing, or an idea which is not specific like a proper noun. This is the reason that you do not capitalize it. You should only capitalize it when it comes at the beginning of a sentence.