Dictionary: English Grammar Terms

A cardinal number is such a number that is used to express the quantity of an item. An ordinal number is used to define a thing’s place or position in a particular list.

Cardinal Numbers

A Cardinal number is used as a noun within a sentence. A cardinal number is such a number that is used to express the quantity of an item. Whenever you hear the word ‘cardinal number’, think ‘how many’ because it tells you how many of something there exists.

For example,

• One
• Two
• Three
• Four
• Five
• Six
• Ten
• Eighteen
• Sixty-two

A Few Example Sentences using Cardinal Numbers

1. We have only five glasses.

2. Tomorrow is my sister’s birthday. She will turn 18.

3. You have asked to bring 100 colorful balloons.

4. Girl at the number 14 is amazing and very talented.

5. Let me introduce these four volunteers.

Ordinal Numbers

An ordinal number is used as a noun within a sentence. It is such a number that is used to define a thing’s place or position in a particular list.

For example,

• 1st > first
• 2nd > second
• 3rd > third
• 4th > fourth
• 22nd > twenty-second
• 57th > fifty-seventh

A Few Example Sentences using Ordinal Numbers

1. This Saturday, she will celebrate her fiftieth birthday.

2. It is time to show my ninth dress.

3. She stood first in the class.

4. I am not designed to come second or third. I am designed to win. (Ayrton Senna)

5. Are you the seventh candidate in the list?

An Important Point

According to AP Style, you should not abbreviate the numbers from one to nine. The whole word should be written out i.e. one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine.

However, other than the numbers one to nine, all the other cardinal numbers should be abbreviated (i.e. in a numerical form).

For example,

1. You need to buy only one notebook for the notes. (Correct)
• You need to buy only 1 notebook for the notes. (Wrong)

2. There are only 15 papers left. (Correct)
• There are only fifteen papers left. (Wrong)

All the ordinal numbers, on the other hand, should not be abbreviated in writing. They should be spelled out.

For example,

1. This is the third time that I am repeating this question. (Correct)
• This is the 3rd time that I am repeating this question. (Wrong)

2. Let us play the sixteenth track on the list. (Correct)
• Let us play the 16th track on the list. (Wrong)

Note: However, there are exceptions to these rules. For example, you can use the figure (i.e. the numerical forms) in writing addresses or ages etc. Click on AP Style Numbers to learn more about the rules.

Contextual Use Cases

Cardinal and ordinal numbers are commonly used in various real-world contexts to express quantities and positions. Below are a few examples of how they function in everyday situations:

1. Time and Dates

Ordinal numbers are essential for expressing dates, marking specific days, months, or years. They help identify the sequence of events or periods in history.

• Example: “The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4th, 1776.”
• Example: “The 21st century has seen rapid technological advancements.”

2. Quantities in Shopping or Inventory

Cardinal numbers are frequently used to count items, especially in shopping or inventory management, where the exact number of objects is important for organization and planning.

• Example: “We need to order 50 chairs for the conference.”
• Example: “The store has only three bottles of milk left in stock.”

By using cardinal numbers to express quantities and ordinal numbers to describe positions or dates, we can effectively communicate important information in various contexts.

What Did You Learn?

Cardinal number expresses the quantity of something, for example, one, two, three, four, eighteen, sixty-two, etc. An ordinal number, on the other hand, defines a thing’s place in a list, for example, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.

An apostrophe (‘) is one of the punctuation marks which is used for two basic purposes.

For example,

1. It is used to show possession

2. It is used to show the omission

Now, I will provide a few examples. Read them to know about the above purposes.

Use Apostrophe to show Possession

As you know that possession is used to refer the state of owning something, it means that apostrophes are used to show someone’s possession about something.

For example,

• This is, actually, John’s ball that you are holding.

In the above example, you can see that an apostrophe with an –s has been put just after the name John, which shows possession. It means that the ball belongs to John. He is the one who is the owner of that ball.

More examples:

1. The girl’s play area was so beautifully arranged.

2. I have borrowed my sister’s drawing pencils.

3. I saw a terrible accident of Leo’s car.

Rules to Follow for Forming Possessives

1. You have to add an –s after the apostrophe. For example, girl’s room, John’s laptop, sister’s bag, monkey’s face, group’s work, children’s place, etc.

2. If there is a joint possession, remember to add an –s at the end of the last word. For example, uncle and aunt’s place, John and my sister’s wedding function, Leo, Twain and Jamie’s home, etc.

3. If a plural noun already ends in –s, then you do not need to add another –s. In this case, remember to add an apostrophe just after –s. For example, girls’ bedroom, learners’ notebooks, monkeys’ food, kids’ wear, etc.

Check Out: What Is An Antecedent?

Use Apostrophe to show Omission

Omission means that something is excluded. It means that you can use apostrophes when letters are excluded or omitted from words.

For example,

• I don’t have any problem if you want to stay here.

In the above example, you can see an apostrophe in ‘don’t’. Don’t is the short form for ‘do not’.

More examples:

1. He’ll not join us tonight because he’s not feeling well.

2. Please! Avoid going outside; it’s so hot.

3. He didn’t write this for you.

Rules to Follow for Omission

In this case, find out that place where the letters are omitted; that will be the place to add an apostrophe.

For example,
1. Do not > don’t
2. Should not > shouldn’t
3. Did not > didn’t
4. Cannot > can’t
5. Would not > wouldn’t
6. Will not > won’t
7. She would , she had > she’d
8. I am > I’m

Common Mistakes with Apostrophes

Apostrophes are often misused, especially in these two common areas:

• Using Apostrophes for Plurals: Apostrophes should not be used to form plurals.
  Error: “The cat’s are playing outside.”
  Correction: “The cats are playing outside.” (No apostrophe needed)
• Its vs. It’s:
  Its is a possessive pronoun (e.g., “The dog wagged its tail”).
  It’s is a contraction for “it is” or “it has” (e.g., “It’s raining today”). Confusing these two is a frequent mistake.

Style Guide Differences in Apostrophe Usage

Different style guides have varied rules for apostrophe use, particularly with singular nouns ending in “s”:

• AP Style: Recommends adding just an apostrophe without an additional “s” (e.g., “Chris’ book”).
• Chicago Manual of Style: Suggests adding an ‘s for singular nouns ending in “s” (e.g., “Chris’s book”).
• British vs. American English: British English often omits the extra “s” for proper names ending in “s,” while American English tends to add it depending on the style guide followed.

What Did You Learn?

Apostrophe is a punctuation mark (‘) which is used to show possession or to show the omission of letters.

In English grammar, an antecedent can be any noun that is usually referred back by a pronoun. For instance,

• Sarah was with her friends. I am sure, they went to their favorite spot.

In the above example, the antecedent is ‘Sarah and her friends’ who is linked to the personal pronoun ‘they’. You must note here that without an antecedent, you cannot identify who is basically a pronoun in a sentence.

Like, if we remove the first sentence and only mention ‘I am sure, they went to their favorite spot’, then it would be impossible for anyone to know about ‘they’. So, it is necessary for an antecedent to be identified before a pronoun. In this case, the antecedent, ‘Sarah and her friends’, helps a person know about ‘they’.

Use of Antecedent and Pronoun within a Sentence

You have seen in the above discussion that there are two separate sentences. First one has an antecedent and the next one is referring back to that antecedent with a personal pronoun.

However, in this case, it is not the strict rule of having two separate sentences. Some sentences have an antecedent and a pronoun used in the same sentence. For instance,

•  Sarah likes to sing her own song.

In the above example, you can see that there is a personal pronoun ‘her’. This case is acceptable because the antecedent ‘Sarah’ stands for this particular personal pronoun.

However, if you remove the antecedent ‘Sarah’, then it would be impossible for anyone to identify ‘her’. So, in this case, the antecedent is important to be identified before the pronoun is used.

Examples of Antecedents with Different Types of Pronouns

With Personal Pronouns > I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them.

1. My mother loves to paint her own imagination.

2. Jack has slept, that is why he cannot join the evening party.

3. The Led is pretty awesome. I really liked its new features.

With Relative Pronouns > where, which, whom, who, that.

1. I met the girl who was crying yesterday at the stadium.

2. The floral printed dress that you liked is one of my most favorite dresses.

3. I will meet you at the side road, where you used to go every morning.

With Demonstrative Pronouns > this, these, that, those.

1. I cannot believe that you actually created your own painting without any help. This is looking beautiful and amazing.

2. You need to be focused and well disciplined. These are the two main important points to be a successful business man.

3. Sarah wants to get top grades in her final exams. That will help her in earning a good reputation.

Note: In all of the above examples, you can see that singular antecedents are following singular pronouns. On the other hand, plural antecedents need to be followed plural pronouns.

Sometimes, it happens that writers do use singular pronouns with plural antecedents or plural pronouns with singular antecedents. You must be very careful about it as; it will be considered your writing grammatically incorrect.

Check Out: Abstract and Concrete Noun.

Common Errors in Antecedent-Pronoun Agreement

Understanding and adhering to proper antecedent-pronoun agreement is crucial for clarity and accuracy in writing. Here are some common errors writers make in this area, along with examples and corrections to help avoid these pitfalls.

1. Incorrect Pronoun Use

One of the most prevalent mistakes involves using pronouns that do not match the number or gender of their antecedents. This often occurs when writers inadvertently use plural pronouns for singular antecedents or fail to maintain gender agreement.

Example:
Each student must submit their project by Friday. (Incorrect)
Correction:
Each student must submit his or her project by Friday. (Correct)

In the first sentence, “their” is incorrectly used to refer to the singular antecedent “each student.” Using “his or her” maintains the singular agreement and ensures clarity.

2. Ambiguous Antecedents

Ambiguity arises when the antecedent is unclear, making it difficult for readers to determine which noun the pronoun refers to. This can create confusion and misunderstandings in communication.

Example:
When Mike and John were discussing, he said that they should leave early. (Ambiguous: Who is “he”?)
Correction:
When Mike and John were discussing, Mike said that they should leave early. (Clear antecedent)

In the original sentence, “he” could refer to either Mike or John, creating uncertainty. The corrected version clarifies that it was Mike who made the statement.

3. Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (e.g., team, group, committee) can complicate pronoun agreement since they can be singular or plural depending on context. This often leads to the misuse of plural pronouns.

Example:
The team lost their game. (Commonly accepted in informal contexts, but “the team” is singular.)
Correction:
The team lost its game. (Correct formal usage)

In this example, “the team” is a singular noun referring to a single unit, so the correct pronoun is “its.” Using “their” implies multiple teams, which is incorrect in this context.

What Did You Learn?

Antecedent is a noun which is referred back by a pronoun. There is a link between an antecedent and a pronoun. Without an antecedent, one cannot understand to whom a pronoun is referring. So, it is necessary for an antecedent to be identified before.

Antithesis is that rhetorical or literary device in which there are two opposite ideas used together in a sentence to form a contrasting effect. A parallel structure is used to show this contradiction.

For example,

• We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools. (Martin Luther King Jr.)

In the above example, you can see that the famous Martin Luther King Jr. has used a parallel structure in his quote, which makes this sentence an antithetical one. The words ‘brothers’ and ‘fools’ or ‘live’ and ‘perish’ can be said as contradictory elements. These words are not exact opposites; but they are creating a contrasting effect which is effective for an antithetical statement.

Apart from this discussion, in this particular quote, the speaker is talking about the importance of humanity that everyone should live together as brothers, without any fight or conflict.

Why Writers or Speakers use Antithesis?

Just like the other literary devices, an antithesis is also an effective device in communicating ideas. The contradictory elements used in antithetical statements can be used to express a particular point that a writer or a speaker is trying to communicate.

It can be a useful tool in making a text rich and memorable to read. The contrasts used in such statements are strict and can be humorous or ironic. The readers should be clever enough to get what the writer is trying to communicate because writers can be very ironic in nature. Sometimes, writers use antithesis in order to pass on some comments in an indirect way. So, readers should have the capability to get those hidden meanings.

Without any purpose, a writer does not use antithesis. Writers do use antithesis with intentions and plans.

In literature, there are hundreds of examples of antithesis as; writers do need such kind of literary devices to communicate their thoughts. One of the most famous examples of antithesis used by Alexander Pope is in his famous ‘An Essay of Criticism’, in which he says,

‘To err is human; to forgive divine.’

In this antithetical statement, Pope reveals the truth by using two contradictory ideas. He is trying to reveal that human beings are imperfect and make mistakes but god is the most forgiving. Two contradictory ideas can be perfection (god) and imperfection (humans) because the erring human beings always make mistakes and commit sins.

Types of Antithesis

Antithesis can be presented in different forms, depending on how the opposing ideas are structured within the sentence. Here are two key types:

1. Simple Antithesis

A simple antithesis is the direct opposition of two ideas in a single sentence, often using a parallel structure. This form is straightforward and concise, making it easy for the audience to grasp the contrasting elements.

Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” – Charles Dickens

2. Complex Antithesis

A complex antithesis involves contrasts embedded in longer or more intricate sentences. These antithetical elements may span multiple ideas, often using layered parallel structures to present the opposition in a more nuanced way.

Example: “We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools.” – Martin Luther King Jr.

Check Out: What is an Antecedent?

Antithesis in Famous Quotes

1. Speech is silver, but silence is gold.

2. It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. (Charles Dickens)

3. Folks who have no vices have very few virtues. (Abraham Lincoln)

4. Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. (Aristotle)

5. Give me some sunshine, Give me some rain, Give me another chance I wanna grow up once again. (Swanand Kirkire)

6. Although the world is full of suffering, it is also full of the overcoming of it. (Helen Keller)

What Did You Learn?

Writers or speakers use antithesis in order to communicate a point by the help of two contradictory elements. In antithetical statements, a parallel structure is used to show the contradiction. The contrasts can be humorous or ironic.

Open and close ended questions: These are the types of questions that you can come across in job interviews, projects, or surveys.

What are Open-ended Questions?

Open-ended questions are such questions that do not restrict someone in giving answers. People can answer freely without having any word limit or options (like yes or no).

The answers of such questions are usually longer. You can find out such answers, mainly, in job interviews. However, a few people may ask open-ended questions in surveys as well; but, in surveys, you may find out two-three questions, that are open-ended questions, out of 20 or more.

Following is the list of a few open-ended questions that you can come across in job interviews.

• How can you describe yourself?
• Can you list some of your strengths and weaknesses?
• Why do you want to work here?
• If you get hired, how can you help this company?
• Tell me something about this company.
• Where do you see yourself five years from now?
• Tell me something about your greatest achievement.

When to Use Open-ended Questions

Open-ended questions are most effective in situations that require in-depth insights or detailed responses. These are ideal for job interviews, where candidates can elaborate on their experiences and skills, or in brainstorming sessions, where creative ideas need to flow freely.

They are also used in qualitative research to understand participants’ thoughts, opinions, and behaviors without restrictions. Open-ended questions encourage thoughtful, detailed answers, making them useful when deeper information is needed.

Job Interview: “Can you describe a challenging project you worked on and how you managed it?”

Check Out: What Is a Clause?

What are Close-ended Questions?

Close-ended questions are such questions that require a particular answer or may have specific options to select. They are very specific in a sense that the answers for such questions may be of one word or it could be very short. Close-ended questions can be very complicated in nature.

For instance, most of the close-ended questions may contain a yes or no answer. So, sometimes, a person can get confused whether to choose a yes or no without any debate. These types of questions are most likely to be asked on surveys because they are easy to analyze as a statistical data.

Following are a few close-ended questions for a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.

• Are you a graduate?
• May you help me please?
• Are you going to visit her or not?
• Do you want to become a doctor?
• Is this dress looking good on me?

Other examples of close-ended questions

• What is your date of birth?
• Does it contain salt or sugar?

The above examples do not expect a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer but the answers of these questions will be of one or two words.

When to Use Close-ended Questions

Close-ended questions are best used in contexts that require quick, specific answers or measurable data, such as surveys, polls, or assessments.

These questions are straightforward and easy to analyze, making them ideal for gathering large amounts of quantifiable data quickly, especially in customer satisfaction surveys or demographic questions. Their simplicity helps in creating clear, actionable results.

Customer Satisfaction Survey: “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with our service?”

Hybrid Questions: Combining Open and Close-ended Questions

Hybrid questions blend both open-ended and close-ended formats, allowing respondents to provide a specific answer first, followed by an opportunity to elaborate if needed.

These questions are useful in scenarios where a clear initial response is required, but additional context can be valuable, such as in feedback forms or post-event surveys. Moreover, hybrid questions balance brevity with depth, improving the quality of the feedback.

Event Feedback: “Did you enjoy the event? If yes, what did you like the most?”

What Did You Learn?

Open-ended question is the opposite of a close-ended question. Close-ended questions expect a particular short answer whereas; open-ended questions do not expect a particular answer and are not specific in nature.