Dictionary: English Grammar Terms

Alliteration is a literary device in which there is a repetition of the same sounds that occur within a series or within a sentence. The same sounds should be the initial sounds occur close together in a sentence.

For example,

1. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

2. Luke Luck likes lakes.

3. Bobby Bippy bought a bat.

In the above examples, the initial sound of the letter ‘p’ in the first example, the initial sound of the letter ‘l’ in the second example, and the initial sound of the letter ‘b’ in the third example are creating the alliteration effect.

The above example sentences can also be named as ‘tongue twisters’ because tongue twisters are those sentences that are difficult to pronounce correctly. They are difficult because of their alliterative nature.

Check Out: What Is Analogy?

Examples of Tongue Twisters or Alliteration

1. She sells seashells on the sea shore.

2. The shells she sells are seashells for sure.

3. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?

4. Red lorry, yellow lorry.

5. The sixth sick sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.

In alliteration, it is not necessary to have the same initial letter. In fact, the initial sound should be the same. For example,

• The cat’s kite cut down.

In the above example, the initial sounds of ‘c’ and ‘k’ are same, that is why this particular series can be alliterative.

Alliteration = Same Initial Sounds

Why Writers Use Tongue Twisters?

The first and foremost importance of alliteration is that it can create a great mood and rhythm within a text. Readers usually got attentive when this kind of alliteration occurs within a particular text.

When a writer wants to emphasize on something or wants to give a special effect on something, he/she can cleverly use this literary device. You can find out the use of alliteration in various poems. For instance, if a writer wants to give an effect of calmness, he/she can use an ‘H’ sound which is similar to hush.
Not only in poems, but writers do use this literary device in prose as well. For example,

• “From forth the fatal loins of these two foes; A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life.”

The above example is taken from William Shakespeare’s play ‘Romeo and Juliet’. You can see that the writer used alliteration with the initial sounds ‘f’ and ‘I’.

What Did You Learn?

It is concluded that alliteration is a literary device in which, mostly, there is a repetition of the same consonant sounds within a sentence. Writers use alliteration as a helpful tool to give emphasis or to give an effect on something. In poems, it is usually use for mood and rhythm.

In English grammar, an affix can be an additional word or an element that is attached to the beginning or to the end of a word. It is attached to the words in order to make a new word, or to modify the meaning of that word. There are two main types of affixes:

Let’s Learn All About An Affix

1. Prefixes
2. Suffixes

What is a Prefix?

A prefix is that kind of affix that is placed at the beginning of a word to change the meaning or to modify that word. Check out a few prefixes that are listed below;

• Non- (meaning ‘not’)
• Dis- (meaning ‘not’)
• Tri- (meaning ‘three’)
• Mis- (meaning ‘wrong’)
• Co- (meaning ‘with)
• Homo- (meaning ‘same’)
• Inter- (meaning ‘between’)
• Pre- (meaning ‘before’)
• Post- (meaning ‘after’)
• Super- (meaning ‘above’)
• Un- (meaning ‘not’)
• In- (meaning ‘into’)

What is a Suffix?

It is opposite of prefix. A suffix is that type of affix that is placed at the end of a word to change the meaning; to modify that word; or to make a new word. Check out a few suffixes that are listed below;

• -less (meaning ‘without’)
• -ful (meaning ‘full of’)
• -able (meaning ‘able to be’)
• -ation (meaning ‘process or action’)
• -ism (meaning ‘quality’)
• -ly (shows manner i.e. adverb ending)
• -ize (meaning ‘cause or become’)
• -er (meaning ‘a person who’)
• -ous (meaning ‘full of’)
• -ship (meaning ‘state of’)
• -ty (meaning ‘quality or state’)
• -wise (meaning ‘in what direction’)

Note: –ed, –ing, –ly, and –es are the four most common suffixes in English grammar.

Affixes in Example Sentences

1. She told me that she was used to be a misguided human being. (mis- is a prefix)

2. Please, don’t be so careless about your certificates. (-less is a suffix)

3. I am unable to reach there on time. (un- is a prefix)

4. She beautifully painted the whole scenery. (-ly is a suffix)

Affix in Famous Quotes

1. Professionalism is not sportsmanship. If you don’t succeed, you won’t be in your profession for long. In our society, it’s not about good or bad. It’s about who’s on top. (Chili Davis)

2. The port, the artist, the sleuth, whoever sharpens our perception tends to anti-social; rarely ‘well adjusted,’ he cannot go along with currents and trends. (Marshall McLuhan)

Note: Hyphenate those prefixes and suffixes when they do not give a proper meaning or when they do not make a proper word when attached to a particular word. For example, Neo-Stalinists, Afro-American, mayor-elect, etc.

Check Out: What Is An Allegory?

What Did You Learn?

An affix is used to refer such letters that are attached at the beginning or the end of a word in order to modify or to change the meaning of that word. Prefixes and suffixes are the two main types of an affix.

An adjective clause is a dependent clause. It means that these clauses do not stand alone. These clauses act just like simple adjectives i.e. they also tell us some information about the nouns.

As, you know that a clause does not have a single word. It means that an adjective clause consists of a few words that together tell us something about a noun.

You have to remember some points to identify adjective clauses.

• These clauses always start with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. Relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, that, or which. Relative adverbs are when, where, or why.

• These clauses have a subject and a verb.

• Last but not the least, these clauses (like adjectives) tell us something about nouns.

For example,

1. The handmade bangles, which you like the most, are about to come in the upcoming event.

In the above example, the adjective clause is ‘…which you like the most…’

• This adjective clause is describing ‘the handmade bangles’, which is a noun.

• This clause starts with a relative pronoun ‘which’.

• It consists of a subject and a verb, ‘you like’.

Check Out: What Is a Clause?

Advantages of Adjective Clauses

The main advantage of such clauses is that they make your writing more descriptive. If you want to be briefer but comprehensive or you want to add further information related to noun, you can easily take advantage of such clauses.

For example,

1. Are you presenting the operation that my friend planned?

2. This is the studio where I had spent my most time.

Note the above examples. ‘…that my friend planned’ and ‘…where I had spent the most time’ are the clauses that are used to give more information about the nouns i.e. ‘the operation’ and ‘the studio’. The writers use such clauses to give a lot of information about nouns but in a few words. These few words can sum up the whole idea.

An Important Point

As you know that an adjective clause is a dependent clause so, it is very important to connect such a clause with an independent clause.

There are two types of adjective clauses.

1. Restrictive Adjective Clauses: These are such clauses that are used as to provide essential information. In this case, you do not need to set off commas around it.

2. Non-restrictive Adjective Clauses: These are such clauses that are used to provide additional information. If you remove such a clause from a sentence, you can easily get the idea. In this case, you have to set off commas around such clauses.

Examples,

1. The last dress in the cupboard, which is of blue colour, is not yours. (Non-restrictive clause)

2. The person who knows the situation will go with me. (Restrictive clause)

Comparison with Other Types of Clauses

Understanding how adjective clauses fit within the broader context of dependent clauses can enhance your grasp of sentence structure. Here’s a brief comparison with two other types of dependent clauses: adverbial clauses and noun clauses.

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, providing information about how, when, where, why, or to what extent an action occurs. They often start with subordinating conjunctions like “because,” “although,” or “if.”

Example: “She left because it was late.” Here, the adverbial clause explains the reason for her departure.

Noun Clauses

Noun clauses function as subjects, objects, or complements in a sentence. They can replace a noun or a noun phrase and often begin with words like “that,” “what,” or “whether.”

Example: “What you said is true.” In this sentence, the noun clause acts as the subject, indicating that the statement made is true.

Adjective Clauses

In contrast, adjective clauses modify nouns and provide additional details about them. They begin with relative pronouns or adverbs, such as “who,” “that,” or “which.”

Example: “The book that you lent me is fascinating.” Here, the adjective clause describes “the book,” giving more information about it.

What Did You Learn?

Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that provide more information about nouns. It always starts with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb and it always consists of a subject and a verb.

An auxiliary verb is a verb that can help in the formation of many of the tenses. You can also name an auxiliary verb as a helping verb, as they are helping in the making of questions and negative sentences and also compound and the passive tenses.

You can find out three auxiliary verbs that re known as the most common auxiliary verbs in English grammar. Those three most common auxiliary verbs are be, do and have.

One thing that you should remember is that an auxiliary verb, mainly, helps the main verb that is why, it is paired with the main verb. For example,

• I am painting for my next exhibition.

In the above example, ‘am’ is the helping verb as ‘to be’, which is paired with the main verb ‘to paint’. This helping verb ‘to be’ is used to make the verb tense i.e. the present progressive verb tense.

However, there can be such sentences in which you can find out no other verb paired with the conjugated form ‘to be’. In this case, the form ‘to be’ will be considered as the main verb. For instance, in the sentence ‘I am.’, ‘I’ is the subject and ‘am’ (to be) is the main verb.

Function of Auxiliary or Helping Verbs

Some of the auxiliary verbs are be, do, have, can, could, would, should, will, shall, may, might, etc.

The auxiliary verb ‘be’ can be used to make progressive and passive tenses. For example,

• He is going to the market for shopping. (Progressive)
• She was trained by a highly qualified institution. (Passive)

The auxiliary verb ‘have’ can be used in perfect sentences. For example,

• I have been waiting for you since morning.

The auxiliary verb ‘do’ can be used in making questions and negative sentences. For example,

• She does not like the dress that you gave her. (Negative)
• Did he agree with my terms and conditions? (Question)

Note: The forms ‘be’, ‘have’ and ‘do’ not only used as an auxiliary verb but they can be used as a main verb as well. For instance, the conjugated forms of ‘be’ can be, is, am, being, been, was, and were; that can be used as a main verb too.

An auxiliary verb can help in creating emphasis as well. In this case, ‘do’ is used to create emphasis by pairing itself with a main verb. For example,

• I do agree with your terms and conditions.

Primary Helping Verbs vs. Modal Helping Verbs

By primary helping verbs, I mean the forms ‘be’, ‘have’, and ‘do’. It means that they are the helping verbs that can stand alone without the main verb. As I said above that ‘be’, ‘have’ and ‘do’ can be used as a main verb as well. For example,

•  She does her work without breaks.

In the above example, ‘does’ is a primary helping verb that is standing alone without any main verb.

By modal helping verbs, I mean ‘shall’, ‘would’, ‘should’, ‘will’, ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘might’, ‘must’, and ‘may’. These are the helping or auxiliary verbs that should be paired with the verbs in order to give a meaning in a sentence, otherwise it should be considered a grammatical error. For example,

• I will go for further studies.

In the above example, ‘will’ is the helping verb that is paired with the verb ‘go’.

Check Out: What Is An Adverb?

Common Errors and Mistakes with Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs can sometimes be confusing for English learners, especially when distinguishing them from main verbs or using them correctly in negative sentences and questions.

1. Mistaking Auxiliary Verbs for Main Verbs

One common mistake is confusing auxiliary verbs with main verbs, particularly with verbs like “do” that can function in both roles.

As an auxiliary verb, “do” is used in questions and negatives, but it can also act as the main verb.

• Error: “He did not his homework.”
• Correction: “He did not do his homework.”

In the corrected version, “do” is used as both an auxiliary verb to form the negative and as the main verb (to do homework).

Learners often leave out the main verb, causing confusion in meaning.

2. Overusing Auxiliary Verbs

Another common issue is the overuse of auxiliary verbs, particularly in simple statements where they are unnecessary.

This often happens because learners overgeneralize the use of auxiliary verbs in English sentence structure.

• Error: “He does can swim.”
• Correction: “He can swim.”

In this example, “does” is unnecessary because “can” already acts as the auxiliary verb for ability.

3. Omitting Auxiliary Verbs in Negatives and Questions

A frequent error, especially for beginners, is omitting auxiliary verbs in negative sentences or questions. In English, negatives and questions usually require an auxiliary verb, even when there’s no other auxiliary verb in the affirmative sentence.

• Error: “She no like chocolate.”
• Correction: “She does not like chocolate.”
• Error: “You going to the party?”
• Correction: “Are you going to the party?”

In both examples, auxiliary verbs (“does” and “are”) are necessary to form grammatically correct sentences. Without these, the structure is incomplete and confusing.

What Did You Learn?

Auxiliary verb can also be called as a helping verb, which is used in the formation of various tenses. It can help in changing the moods and voices of other verbs as well. Primary helping verbs (be, do, and have) can stand alone without a verb. On the other hand, modal helping verbs (shall, would, should, will, can, could, might, must, and may) are always paired with the main verb.

A cardinal number is such a number that is used to express the quantity of an item. An ordinal number is used to define a thing’s place or position in a particular list.

Cardinal Numbers

A Cardinal number is used as a noun within a sentence. A cardinal number is such a number that is used to express the quantity of an item. Whenever you hear the word ‘cardinal number’, think ‘how many’ because it tells you how many of something there exists.

For example,

• One
• Two
• Three
• Four
• Five
• Six
• Ten
• Eighteen
• Sixty-two

A Few Example Sentences using Cardinal Numbers

1. We have only five glasses.

2. Tomorrow is my sister’s birthday. She will turn 18.

3. You have asked to bring 100 colorful balloons.

4. Girl at the number 14 is amazing and very talented.

5. Let me introduce these four volunteers.

Ordinal Numbers

An ordinal number is used as a noun within a sentence. It is such a number that is used to define a thing’s place or position in a particular list.

For example,

• 1st > first
• 2nd > second
• 3rd > third
• 4th > fourth
• 22nd > twenty-second
• 57th > fifty-seventh

A Few Example Sentences using Ordinal Numbers

1. This Saturday, she will celebrate her fiftieth birthday.

2. It is time to show my ninth dress.

3. She stood first in the class.

4. I am not designed to come second or third. I am designed to win. (Ayrton Senna)

5. Are you the seventh candidate in the list?

An Important Point

According to AP Style, you should not abbreviate the numbers from one to nine. The whole word should be written out i.e. one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine.

However, other than the numbers one to nine, all the other cardinal numbers should be abbreviated (i.e. in a numerical form).

For example,

1. You need to buy only one notebook for the notes. (Correct)
• You need to buy only 1 notebook for the notes. (Wrong)

2. There are only 15 papers left. (Correct)
• There are only fifteen papers left. (Wrong)

All the ordinal numbers, on the other hand, should not be abbreviated in writing. They should be spelled out.

For example,

1. This is the third time that I am repeating this question. (Correct)
• This is the 3rd time that I am repeating this question. (Wrong)

2. Let us play the sixteenth track on the list. (Correct)
• Let us play the 16th track on the list. (Wrong)

Note: However, there are exceptions to these rules. For example, you can use the figure (i.e. the numerical forms) in writing addresses or ages etc. Click on AP Style Numbers to learn more about the rules.

Contextual Use Cases

Cardinal and ordinal numbers are commonly used in various real-world contexts to express quantities and positions. Below are a few examples of how they function in everyday situations:

1. Time and Dates

Ordinal numbers are essential for expressing dates, marking specific days, months, or years. They help identify the sequence of events or periods in history.

• Example: “The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4th, 1776.”
• Example: “The 21st century has seen rapid technological advancements.”

2. Quantities in Shopping or Inventory

Cardinal numbers are frequently used to count items, especially in shopping or inventory management, where the exact number of objects is important for organization and planning.

• Example: “We need to order 50 chairs for the conference.”
• Example: “The store has only three bottles of milk left in stock.”

By using cardinal numbers to express quantities and ordinal numbers to describe positions or dates, we can effectively communicate important information in various contexts.

What Did You Learn?

Cardinal number expresses the quantity of something, for example, one, two, three, four, eighteen, sixty-two, etc. An ordinal number, on the other hand, defines a thing’s place in a list, for example, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.