Dictionary: English Grammar Terms

In English, almost each and every sentence has at least one clause in it. A clause expresses a complete thought and meaning; and it has a subject and a predicate. As, subject is the one who performs the action (which is the verb), this is the reason that a clause can express a complete thought and idea.

For example,

• The students are still reading the novel.

In the above example, you can see that ‘the students’ is the subject and this subject is doing the action (verb), which is ‘reading’.

As I said above that a clause expresses a complete idea or a thought but you can find out such clauses as well that do not consist of a complete thought. Let me tell you two basic types of a clause.

An Independent Clause

An independent clause is such a clause that has a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete thought and idea. It means that if we separate out this clause from a sentence, it can give a complete meaning. So, we can say that an independent clause can stand alone.

For example,

• Though he was taking much interest in it, John refused to buy the play station.

In the above example, the clause ‘John refused to buy the play station’ is an independent clause because it can give a complete thought without any grammatical error.

More examples of an Independent Clause

1. She will complete her project after a few days.

2. If you are working on it, let me give a break time.

In example (1), the independent clause is ‘she will complete her project’ whereas, in example (2), ‘let me give a break time’ is an independent clause that is giving a complete thought.

A Dependent Clause

Unlike an independent clause, a dependent clause is such a clause that does not stand alone. Though, it might have a subject and a verb but still it cannot express a complete thought or an idea. If we separate out this particular clause from a sentence, it cannot provide a grammatically correct meaning.

For example,

• Though he was taking much interest in it, John refused to buy the play station.

In the above example, the clause ‘though he was taking much interest in it…’ is a dependent clause. It does not give a complete thought. No matter, this clause has a subject ‘he’ and a verb ‘taking’, it still cannot be considered a grammatically correct independent clause.

A dependent clause must be connected with an independent clause to give a complete idea. For instance, in the above example, the dependent clause ‘though he was taking much interest in it…’ should be connected to another clause (an independent clause) to provide a complete meaning to the readers. Without the independent clause ‘John refused to buy the play station’, nobody would be able to know ‘who’ was taking much interest in ‘what’?

Other Examples of a Dependent Clause

1. She will complete her project after a few days.

2. If you are working on it, let me give a break time.

In example (1), the dependent clause is ‘after a few days’ whereas, in example (2), ‘if you are working on it’ is a dependent clause that is not giving a complete thought.

Other Types of Clauses

All the following types are related to dependent clauses that cannot stand alone to express a complete thought.
1. A Noun Clause > contains a subject and a verb + acts as a noun. For example, ‘She remembers what you ordered last night.’ (The red colored clause is a noun clause.)

2. An Adjective Clause > It begins with when, where, why, who, whom, that, or which + contains a subject and a verb + acts as an adjective. For example, ‘My friend, who always wears black, will be joining us very soon.’ (The red colored clause is an adjective clause.)

Click here to find out more information about an adjective clause.

3. An Adverbial Clause > contains a subject and a verb + acts as an adverb. For example, ‘I will try to reach at the airport as soon as possible.’ (The red colored clause is an adverbial clause.)

Difference Between Phrases and Clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb, and it can express a complete or incomplete thought. In contrast, a phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb, and it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

• Clause: “He walked to the store.” (subject: he, verb: walked)
• Phrase: “Walking to the store” (no subject performing the action)

Phrases add extra detail, while clauses can form the foundation of complete sentences.

What Did You Learn?

A clause, in a sentence, contains a subject and a verb. The clause that expresses a complete thought or an idea is known as an independent clause. On the other hand, the clause that cannot express a complete thought or an idea is known as a dependent clause.

Collective nouns are words which are used to refer to a group of people, things, or animals. Though, a collective noun represents a group but it denotes that group as a singular unit.

Take a look at the list of most common collective nouns,

• Family
• Army
• Staff
• Team
• Committee
• Department
• Society
• Public
• Class
• Company
• Audience
• School
• Group
• Council
• Board
• Firm
• Jury

Use of Collective Nouns in Example Sentences

1. My team is better than yours.

2. The audience was very much excited for today’s show.

3. The teacher asked one of his students to call upon the next class for the presentation.

In the above examples, ‘team’, ‘audience’, and ‘class’ are known as collective nouns. Each of these collective nouns is singular in appearance but in fact, these collective nouns have more than one person in them. For instance, a team cannot have a single person in it or you cannot imagine an audience having a single person. There must be two or more than two people in it.

List of Collective Nouns by Category

Collective nouns are words used to refer to groups of people, animals, or objects. Grouping collective nouns into specific categories can help readers visualize how these words function in various contexts. Below are some common collective nouns, organized by category:

1. People

These collective nouns describe groups of people in various professions, activities, or settings.

• Choir: A group of singers or musicians.
• Panel: A group of experts or people gathered for discussion or judgment.
• Cast: A group of actors in a play, movie, or TV show.
• Crew: A group of people who work together, especially on a ship or aircraft.
• Team: A group of people collaborating to achieve a common goal, such as in sports or work.
• Band: A group of musicians playing together.
• Class: A group of students in a school or educational setting.
• Committee: A group of people appointed to perform a specific task or make decisions.

2. Animals

Animal collective nouns are often colorful and imaginative, representing groups of specific types of animals.

• Herd: A group of grazing animals, such as cattle or elephants.
• Flock: A group of birds, like pigeons or sheep.
• Pack: A group of carnivorous animals, such as wolves or dogs.
• Swarm: A large group of insects, especially bees or locusts.
• Pride: A group of lions.
• School: A group of fish swimming together.
• Colony: A group of penguins or ants living together in a specific area.
• Troop: A group of monkeys.

3. Objects/Things

These collective nouns describe groups of inanimate objects or things.

• Bunch: A group of things of the same kind, such as grapes, keys, or flowers.
• Stack: A neat pile of items, like books or papers.
• Collection; A group of similar items gathered together, like stamps or paintings.
• Fleet: A group of ships, airplanes, or vehicles traveling together.
• Set: A group of related objects, such as a set of dishes or tools.
• Pile: An untidy heap of objects, like clothes or leaves.
• Range: A group of mountains or hills.
• Suite: A set of connected rooms or musical compositions.

Rare or Unusual Collective Nouns

While many collective nouns are commonly known, some are rare or unique, particularly those describing animals or objects. These less familiar collective nouns can add a fun twist to your vocabulary and enrich your writing.

1. Animals

• A Parliament of Owls: Refers to a group of owls. The term “parliament” adds a sense of wisdom, as owls are often associated with knowledge and mystery.
• A Murder of Crows: A chilling collective noun for a group of crows. The word “murder” is likely linked to old folklore associating crows with death and omens.
• A Drove of Pigs: Used to describe a group of pigs being driven together.

2. Objects/Things

• A Quiver of Arrows: A group of arrows stored together in a quiver, ready to be used by an archer.
• A Clutch of Eggs: Refers to a group of eggs, typically laid by a bird at one time.
• A Bale of Turtles: Used to describe a group of turtles.

Adding these rare and unusual collective nouns not only diversifies your vocabulary but also makes your writing more vivid and interesting!

Check Out: Abstract and Concrete Nouns.

Few Rules to use Collective Nouns in Sentences

Remember to use a singular verb form with a collective noun. For example,

• The class goes to the playground.

• The board does something very aggressive, which is unbelievable.

In the above examples, both ‘goes’ and ‘does’ are singular verb forms for ‘to go’ and ‘to do’.

However, collective nouns can be used singular or plural. In this way, you have to be careful while using the same form of collective noun within the whole sentence. For example,

• The family is excited and plans to go for a long trip next weekend. (Correct)
• The family is excited and they plan to go for a long trip next weekend. (Wrong)
• The family are all excited and they plan to go for a long trip next weekend. (Correct)

If you are confused in the above last example sentence then, free to add a word like ‘members‘ to denote each individual person of the respective collective noun. For instance,

• The family members are all excited and they plan to go for a long trip next weekend. (Correct)

More examples,

1. Your team is going to show its best. (Singular)
• After the training, the team move to their rooms to take rest. (Plural)

2. The class was very busy in preparing the most difficult project. (Singular)
• The class sit peacefully and have waited for the lecturer to join them. (Plural)

As I said above, if you feel any confusion, add a word like ‘members’ for instance, team members, or you can replace the word like, you can replace the word ‘class’ with ‘students’ and vice versa.

What Did You Learn?

A collective noun is such a word which is used to refer to a group of things, people, or animals as a singular unit. These nouns are singular by nature that is why, they require singular verbs. However, when a collective noun is used in a plural form, remember to use plural verb with it.

A colon is that punctuation mark which is used for three grammatical purposes.

Those three purposes are:

1. To introduce a list
2. To explain the first clause
3. To use before a quotation

1. Colon Is Used To Introduce a List

You can use a it to introduce a list. For example,

• I think you have three things in your pocket: a pen, a small diary, and a mobile phone.

• Please bring five things from market: vegetables, fruits, yogurt, milk, bread, and eggs.

You see in the above examples that colons are used after the independent clauses. For instance, in the first example, ‘… a pen, a small diary, and a mobile phone’ is a dependent clause. You should be careful in using it. Always place a colon after the clause. This is the rule!

2. To Explain the First Clause

One of the three grammatical uses is that it is used in between the two main clauses. In this way, the second clause explains the first clause. By using this, a writer can explain his thought intensely. For example,

• I know I am done with my work: just to live an exciting life.

• Hundreds days in Switzerland: unforgettable time of my life.

3. Colon Is Used Before a Quotation

A colon is also used before a quotation or a direct speech. For example,

• She said: “Arrive early if you really want a big slice of the chocolate cake.”

• The boss ordered: “I want all the files ready just after two hours.”

Other Uses

Apart from the grammatical uses of a colon, there are also a few non-grammatical uses of a colon. For instance, in ratios, titles, time, references, etc. Let me briefly explain few of them.

1. The colon is used in writing time, for instance, to separate minutes from hours.

9:30 p.m.
11:00 a.m.

2. The colon is used in stating references like biblical references. It is used to separate chapters from verses.

• Genesis 1:27
• Genesis 1:26

3. The colons are used in stating the ratios as well.

1:2
4:3

4. You can find out colons used in formal letters as well.

• Respected Ma’am Madonna:
• To whom it may concern:

Note: Don’t use semicolon after a salutation.

5. Separation of titles and subtitles can be done by using a colon.

• Aphorism: The Girl that is a Beauty
• Intraseasonal Variability: Processes, Predictability and Prospects for Prediction

Remember a Few Rules

Only capitalize the first word after a colon when the first word is a proper noun or there is an independent clause. For example,

• I have only two best friends: Amelia and Leo.

• Forget everything: Be happy!

Sometimes, writers do use a colon before a list and just after a preposition or a verb or the words like including. This is not grammatically correct. You should avoid using a colon in this case. For example,

• The dress that I want should be: pretty, cool, and cheap. (Incorrect)

• There are many good things in this shop such as: laptops, video games, mobile phones, digital cameras, etc. (Incorrect)

In the first example, there is no need to place it. The sentence will be grammatically correct without any punctuation mark. The same case is with the second example.

Check Out: What Is a Comma Splice?

What Did You Learn?

A colon is a punctuation mark that has mainly three grammatical uses and a few non-grammatical uses as well. It is used after an independent clause to introduce a list, to explain, or to use before a quotation.

In simple words, when you join two independent clauses with only a comma then, it can be turned into a comma splice.

It is very important for the writers to completely avoid grammatical errors. One of the grammatical errors is a comma splice, which has to be carefully observed and corrected in order to make an efficient publication.

For example,

1. My sisters will go to the palace in the morning, they should come back by 9:30 p.m. (Incorrect)

The above example sentence is a perfect example of a comma splice. The two sentences are independent sentences that are joined with a comma. This is absolutely incorrect. One cannot join these two independent sentences with only a comma.

How to Fix a Comma Splice?

Do not get worried!

You can easily fix a comma splice by following each of the below strategies.

1. You can simply add a semicolon, which is a punctuation mark. For example,
• My sisters will go to the palace in the morning; they should come back by 9:30 p.m. (Correct)

Check Out: What Is a Colon?

2. You can add a conjunction with a comma to make it an error-free sentence. For example,
• My sisters will go to the palace in the morning; and they should come back by 9:30 p.m. (Correct)

3. In the same way, you can also split this sentence into two separate sentences to make it grammatically correct. For instance,
• My sisters will go to the palace in the morning. They should come back by 9:30 p.m. (Correct)

Comma Splice vs. Run-On Sentence: What’s the Difference?

While both comma splices and run-on sentences involve incorrectly joining independent clauses, they are not the same thing. The key difference lies in how the two clauses are connected.

Comma Splice

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined together with just a comma, which is grammatically incorrect because the comma isn’t strong enough to separate two complete thoughts.

• Incorrect: I love to travel, I will visit Italy next summer.

In this sentence, both parts before and after the comma can stand alone as separate sentences, making the comma splice incorrect. To fix it, you can use a semicolon, a conjunction, or split the sentence into two.

Corrected Versions:

• I love to travel; I will visit Italy next summer.
• I love to travel, and I will visit Italy next summer.

Run-On Sentence

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined together with no punctuation or coordinating conjunction at all. It’s essentially a string of sentences that run together without proper separation, making it confusing to read.

• Incorrect: I love to travel I will visit Italy next summer.

In this case, there’s no punctuation or conjunction between the two independent clauses, which makes it a run-on sentence. Like a comma splice, it can be fixed by adding punctuation or a conjunction.

Corrected Versions:

• I love to travel; I will visit Italy next summer.
• I love to travel, and I will visit Italy next summer.

Quiz

Now, to test yourself, identify those sentences that contain a comma splice.

1. Before I start the lecture, I want to introduce myself.

2. I needed to go to the market, I went out early in the morning.

3. The students have prepared their projects, they are really fast in work.

4. I am not happy about his work, so I am going to reject his entire project.

5. Whenever you will apologize, I will definitely work with you.

6. My sister loves to make handmade jewellery, she just tried a new design.

In the above sentences, you can see comma splices in 2, 3, and 6.

Apart from 2, 3, and 6, the rest of the sentences are grammatically correct sentences. In 1 and 5, you can see subordinate clauses. On the other hand, in 4, there is a conjunction ‘so’ used to link the two clauses.

What Did You Learn?

So, a comma splice should be fixed up in order to make writing grammatically correct and organized. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses joined together with a comma, which is completely incorrect.

Anaphora is that rhetorical and literary device in which there is a repetition of a word or a phrase in successive sentences or clauses.

For example,

I can’t catch a crocodile,
I can’t climb a cliff.
I can’t cook a cake…

In the above example, there is a repetition of the phrase ‘I can’t’, which is an example of anaphora.

Why Writers or Speakers use Anaphora?

People make use of this device in order to give emphasis on words or phrases. It is one of the most effective tools in literature that is often used by the writers. Professional writers know how to use anaphora in an effective manner. It is, in fact, the best choice to make a speech or a writing a significant one. It gives weight on a particular word or phrases.

Mostly, you can come across with anaphora in speeches. In speeches, a speaker repeats certain words or phrases to make a speech more effective and memorable. For instance, you can find out such examples of anaphora in the speeches of Martin Luther King.

Now is the time to make real promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.

The following example paragraph is taken from Martin Luther King’s famous address ‘I Have a Dream’, which was delivered at ‘The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.’ You can see how the speaker has repeated the phrase ‘Now is the time…’ to make his address more effective and emphatic.

Apart from the speeches, writers use this rhetorical device more commonly in poetry than prose. In poetry, it helps to create rhythm and gives emphasis on a particular word or phrases.

For example,

And I saw it was filled with graves,
And tomb-stones where flowers should be:
And Priests in black gowns, were walking their rounds,
And binding with briars, my joys & desires.

The above stanza is taken from a poem ‘The Garden of Love’ written by William Blake. You can see that the poet has used anaphora in this particular stanza. The repetition of ‘And’ creates a rhythm.

A few more examples of Anaphora

• We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air,…. (Winston Churchill)

• It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief… (Charles Dickens)

• Doubt thou the stars are fire, Doubt that the sun doth move, Doubt truth to be a liar, but never doubt I love. (Shakespeare)

What Did You Learn?

Anaphora is a rhetorical and a literary device in which you can find out a repetition of a word or phrase in successive sentences. It is used by the speakers or writers in order to give emphasis on a particular word or phrase. In poetry, it is mostly used to create rhythm.