Dictionary: English Grammar Terms

Anaphora is that rhetorical and literary device in which there is a repetition of a word or a phrase in successive sentences or clauses.

For example,

I can’t catch a crocodile,
I can’t climb a cliff.
I can’t cook a cake…

In the above example, there is a repetition of the phrase ‘I can’t’, which is an example of anaphora.

Why Writers or Speakers use Anaphora?

People make use of this device in order to give emphasis on words or phrases. It is one of the most effective tools in literature that is often used by the writers. Professional writers know how to use anaphora in an effective manner. It is, in fact, the best choice to make a speech or a writing a significant one. It gives weight on a particular word or phrases.

Mostly, you can come across with anaphora in speeches. In speeches, a speaker repeats certain words or phrases to make a speech more effective and memorable. For instance, you can find out such examples of anaphora in the speeches of Martin Luther King.

Now is the time to make real promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.

The following example paragraph is taken from Martin Luther King’s famous address ‘I Have a Dream’, which was delivered at ‘The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.’ You can see how the speaker has repeated the phrase ‘Now is the time…’ to make his address more effective and emphatic.

Apart from the speeches, writers use this rhetorical device more commonly in poetry than prose. In poetry, it helps to create rhythm and gives emphasis on a particular word or phrases.

For example,

And I saw it was filled with graves,
And tomb-stones where flowers should be:
And Priests in black gowns, were walking their rounds,
And binding with briars, my joys & desires.

The above stanza is taken from a poem ‘The Garden of Love’ written by William Blake. You can see that the poet has used anaphora in this particular stanza. The repetition of ‘And’ creates a rhythm.

A few more examples of Anaphora

• We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air,…. (Winston Churchill)

• It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief… (Charles Dickens)

• Doubt thou the stars are fire, Doubt that the sun doth move, Doubt truth to be a liar, but never doubt I love. (Shakespeare)

What Did You Learn?

Anaphora is a rhetorical and a literary device in which you can find out a repetition of a word or phrase in successive sentences. It is used by the speakers or writers in order to give emphasis on a particular word or phrase. In poetry, it is mostly used to create rhythm.

Adjectives are the words that are used to describe or modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective can specify your writing by giving more information and more meaning to nouns or pronouns. Compound adjectives are, actually, adjectives that are used to modify nouns.

Compound means consisting of two or more separate parts. It means that a compound adjective, as the name implies, consist of two or more than two words. These separate words make up a compound adjective to modify nouns.

The following list has a few examples of compound adjectives.

• Well-known author
• Part-time job
• Under-developed town
• Two-year-old child
• One-letter apart
• Cold-blooded animals
• Well-behaved student
• Close-ended questions
• 4-metre-long rope
• Absent-minded person

Rules to form Compound Adjectives

1. Use Hyphens:

As you can see in the above examples, hyphens are used to link the words to make up a compound adjective. For example,

• At the end of the session, the instructor will ask a few close-ended questions from each one of us.
• Accent and ascent are just one-letter apart.
• I can see an absent-minded person in my classroom.

2. Do not use hyphens:

You do not need to use hyphens when there are proper nouns that are used to form up a compound adjective. For example,

• I so wanted to download 8 Ball Pool game but didn’t get time.

In the above example, 8 Ball Pool is a compound adjective which is made up of a proper noun. This is the reason for not using hyphens to link these words together. This compound adjective ‘8 Ball Pool’ is describing the game.

Note: You do not need to use hyphens when the compound adjective comes after the noun. For example, the student is well behaved.

Trick to use a Hyphen

This trick is very famous to get to know whether to use hyphens between words to form a compound adjective or not.

> You do not need to use hyphens when you can use the word ‘and’ between the words. For example,

1. She is wearing a pretty bright dress. (Correct)

In the above example, the adjectives are ‘pretty bright.’ Now, use the word ‘and’ between these adjectives and see if it is making sense or not.

• She is wearing a pretty and bright dress. (Correct)

You can see that after using the word ‘and’, the sentence is still making sense. It means that there is no need to use a hyphen to join ‘pretty’ and ‘bright.’

> In the same way, you would need a hyphen if the sentence will not make sense after using ‘and’ between the adjectives. For instance,

1. I feel very bad when I think about cold blooded animals. 

In the above example, the adjectives are ‘cold blooded.’ Now, use the word ‘and’ between these adjectives and see if it is making sense or not.

• I feel very bad when I think about cold and blooded animals. (Wrong)

No, it is not making sense. We truly need a hyphen to join the adjectives to make it grammatically correct. So, the correct sentence would be,

• I feel very bad when I think about cold-blooded animals. (Correct)

Types of Compound Adjectives

Compound adjectives can be categorized based on their composition, providing greater specificity and clarity in writing. Here are the main types:

• Noun + Adjective: These adjectives combine a noun with an adjective to describe a quality.
  Examples: World-famous artist, accident-prone driver.
• Adjective + Noun: This structure pairs an adjective with a noun, often denoting a specific role or quality.
  Examples: Full-time job, high-quality product.
• Adjective + Past Participle: These adjectives describe a noun using a past participle, often indicating a state or condition.
  Examples: Open-minded person, old-fashioned idea.
• Noun + Present Participle: This structure uses a noun with a present participle to express ongoing action or quality.
  Examples: Thought-provoking book, time-consuming task.
• Number + Noun: These compound adjectives indicate quantity and are often hyphenated when they modify nouns.
  Examples: Two-week vacation, four-story building.

Common Mistakes with Compound Adjectives

When using compound adjectives, writers often make the following common mistakes:

• Incorrect Hyphenation: Failing to use hyphens can lead to confusion.
  Incorrect: “The teacher gave a well-known scholar a recommendation.”
  Correct: “The teacher gave a well-known scholar a recommendation.”
• Unnecessary Hyphenation: Adding hyphens where they are not needed, particularly with adverbs ending in “-ly.”
  Incorrect: “She is a highly-skilled artist.”
  Correct: “She is a highly skilled artist.”

Compound Adjectives and Style Guides

Different style guides offer specific rules for using hyphens in compound adjectives. Adhering to these guidelines can enhance your writing, especially in academic and professional contexts.

• APA Style Guide: According to APA, compound adjectives should be hyphenated when they precede the noun they modify.
  Example: “A well-established theory is essential for understanding.”
• Chicago Manual of Style: Chicago also recommends hyphenating compound adjectives before a noun to prevent ambiguity.
  Example: “The high-quality materials were sourced locally.”
• MLA Style: In MLA, similar hyphenation rules apply. Ensure you hyphenate compound adjectives before the nouns they modify.
  Example: “He bought a state-of-the-art computer.”

Check Out: How Do We Write Titles In AP Style?

What Did You Learn?

Compound adjectives are adjectives that are used to modify nouns; usually hyphenated; and may consist of more than one word.

You will always find out a subject and predicate in an independent clause (sentence). The predicate is the verb that the subject does in the sentence. Compound means consisting of two or more separate parts. It means that a compound predicate, as the name implies, consists of two or more than two verbs. These separate verbs are joined together by a conjunction and make up a compound predicate.

For example,

1. The girls went to the market and bought five different dresses.

In the above example, ‘and’ is the conjunction that is used to connect two verb phrases ‘went to the market’ and ‘bought five different dress.’

Things to Remember About Compound Predicate

> Always remember that a single predicate is not enough to make up a compound predicate. For instance,

• The girls went to the market.

The above example sentence consists of only one verb phrase, ‘went to the market’, which is an example of a simple predicate. So, it is necessary to have two or more verbs for a compound predicate. For example,

• The girls went to the market and bought five dresses. (Correct)

> One thing more that you should remember about a compound predicate; it should have only one subject not more than it. The only subject will be doing all the actions (verbs). For example,

• My sister woke up early and then decided to go outside.

In the above example, the only subject is ‘sister’ who is performing the two actions ‘woke up early’ and ‘then decided to go outside.’

Compound Predicate = One Subject + Two or more Verb Phrases

Why Should a Writer use Compound Predicates?

A compound predicate is important to make writing productive, fruitful, and concise. If you will repeat the same subject twice or thrice, it will ruin your entire writing because that will be considered unessential. For example,

• My mother cooked delicious food. My mother arranged a grand dinner for me.

The above example sentence is not efficient. So, we should combine these sentences, by using the idea of a compound predicate, to make it more concise and productive.

• My mother cooked delicious food and arranged a grand dinner for me.

More Examples

1. The cat looked at the boy and sat quietly.
2. They were planning to go outside but decided to stay at home.
3. We baked and ate the whole cake.
4. I took classes, worked hard, and passed the exams.
5. The students prepared the project and presented it very well.

Compound Predicate vs. Compound Sentence

A common source of confusion in grammar is the difference between a compound predicate and a compound sentence. A compound predicate occurs when one subject performs multiple actions (verbs) connected by a conjunction, whereas a compound sentence consists of two independent clauses, each with its own subject and verb, joined by a conjunction.

• Compound Predicate: She cleaned the house and cooked dinner.
  (One subject, “she,” performing two actions: “cleaned” and “cooked”)
• Compound Sentence: She cleaned the house, and she cooked dinner.
  (Two independent clauses, each with its own subject and verb: “she cleaned” and “she cooked”)

and,

• Compound Predicate: The dog barked loudly and chased the cat.
  (One subject, “the dog,” with two actions: “barked” and “chased”)
• Compound Sentence: The dog barked loudly, and the cat ran away.
  (Two independent clauses, “the dog barked” and “the cat ran,” each with a separate subject)

Using compound predicates keeps writing concise by avoiding repetition of the subject.

Compound sentences, on the other hand, are useful when the subject or ideas are distinct but related, and it helps in maintaining a logical flow in writing.

Common Mistakes with Compound Predicates

When forming compound predicates, writers often make mistakes such as repeating the subject unnecessarily or failing to maintain parallel verb forms. This can disrupt the sentence flow and make the sentence sound awkward or redundant.

• Mistake: My sister woke up early and my sister went for a walk.
  (The subject “my sister” is unnecessarily repeated.)
• Correction: My sister woke up early and went for a walk.
  (The subject is only used once, with two actions: “woke up” and “went.”)

and,

• Mistake: He enjoys swimming and to ride a bike.
  (The verbs “swimming” (gerund) and “to ride” (infinitive) are not parallel.)
• Correction: He enjoys swimming and riding a bike.
  (Both verbs are in parallel form: gerunds “swimming” and “riding.”)

To avoid these mistakes, make sure to:

• Use the subject only once when forming a compound predicate.
• Ensure that the verbs in a compound predicate are in parallel form (e.g., both in the gerund, both in the infinitive, or both in the past tense). This helps create smoother, more readable sentences.

Check Out: What Are Compound Adjectives?

What Did You Learn?

Hence, compound predicates seem to be very important for writing to make it productive and concise. It is such a part of a sentence that consists of two or more verbs or verb phrases with only one subject. In this, the verbs or verb phrases are combined with a conjunction.

A Compound subject is a sentence (an independent clause) consisting of a predicate (verb) and a subject. The subject does the verb (action) in the sentence.

If the term ‘compound’ means consisting of two or more separate parts, it means that a compound subject is the one that consists of two or more than two subjects. The subjects in a compound subject are nouns that are joined together by a conjunction.

For example,

1. My friends and I went to the cinema to watch the latest movie.

In the above example sentence, the compound subject is ‘my friends and I’ which is joined by the conjunction ‘and.’

2. Either paints or colour pencils would make my children happy.

Just like the example (1), example (2) has also two subjects ‘paints or colour pencils’ which make up a compound subject.

Why use a Compound Subject?

Just like a compound predicate, a compound subject can be important to make writing effective and concise. You can use a compound subject instead of repeating each subject in multiple sentences.

• Sarah likes to paint at home. Her friend likes to paint at home. (Incorrect)
• Sarah and her friend like to paint at home. (Correct)

Rules to Remember

Should you use a singular verb or a plural verb with the compound subjects?

Generally speaking, you need to write a singular verb with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject.

For example,

• She goes. (singular verb with singular subject)
• They go. (plural verb with plural subject)

However, you have to be careful because there is not the same verb case in a compound subject. Though, a compound subject has two or more subjects but the verb will not always be plural.

If the subjects are joined together by ‘and’ then, you should choose a plural verb. For example,

• Sara and Betty are coming at my place. (both subjects are doing the action)

But, if the subjects are added together and referring to the same idea, then the singular verb should be used. For example,

• Rice and soup is to be ordered.

In a compound subject, subjects can be joined together by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ as well. In this case, check out the subject that is closest to the verb. If the closest subject would be singular, the verb would be singular; and if the closest subject would be plural, the verb would be plural. For instance,

• Neither Sarah nor her friends are like to go to party.
• Either you or my friend gets a free ticket from me.

Common Mistakes in Using Compound Subjects

Outline typical errors made when constructing sentences with compound subjects, particularly in terms of subject-verb agreement.

Mistake: Neither the teacher nor the students is happy. (Incorrect)

Correction: Neither the teacher nor the students are happy. (Correct)

What Did You Learn?

Compound subjects may help you to make your writing effective and concise. A compound subject consists of two or more subjects (nouns) that are joined together by a conjunction. There are specific rules for the usage of verb because a compound subject does not necessarily needs a plural verb.

*If you feel any confusion, refresh your mind by reading the post again.

A simple subject simply tells about a sentence without any modifiers. It means that it can be a main word that tells about the action (verb) which is going on in a sentence.

For example,

1. The children ate the whole box full of chocolates.
In the above example, ‘the children’ is the simple subject. ‘the children’ is doing the action (verb), ‘ate.’

2. Sarah sings very sweetly.
In the above example, ‘Sarah’ is the simple subject, who is doing the action (verb), ‘sings.’

Note: You can see in the above examples that there are no modifiers attached to the simple subjects, ‘the children’ and ‘Sarah.’

Simple vs Complete Subject

Think about a complete subject as the opposite.

It tells what is going on in a sentence with modifiers attached to it. It means that a complete subject does not stand alone in a sentence. Let us see in the examples below.

1. Five cute little angels stayed at my place for one month.
In the above example, ‘five cute little angels’ is the complete subject that is doing the verb.

2. The shiny golden dress made her look much better.
In the above example, ‘the shiny golden dress’ is the complete subject; whereas, ‘dress’ is the simple subject.

You have seen in the above examples that the simple subject is only a single word however; the complete one may consist of more than two words that are called ‘the modifiers.’

Note: Prepositional phrases do not include a simple or a complete subject. So, never try to find out subjects in such phrases.

Check Out: What Is a Compound Subject?

Common Errors with Simple Subject

Identifying simple subjects can sometimes be tricky, and several common mistakes can lead to confusion. Here are a few frequent errors to watch out for:

1. Confusing the Complete for the Simple Subject

The complete subject includes all the words that modify the subject, while the simple subject is just the main noun or pronoun doing the action.

• Sentence: “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.”
• Mistake: Many might think that “The quick brown fox” is the simple subject.
• Correction: The simple subject is simply “fox.”

2. Ignoring Implied Subjects in Imperative Sentences

In imperative sentences, the subject is often implied rather than explicitly stated. This can lead to overlooking the simple subject altogether.

• Sentence: “Sit down.”
• Mistake: Readers may overlook the subject and wonder who is being addressed.
• Correction: The implied simple subject is “you.” Understanding that “you” is often the unspoken subject in commands is essential for grasping the full meaning of the sentence.

3. Misidentifying Subjects in Complex Sentences

In sentences that contain clauses or phrases, identifying the simple subject can become more complicated.

• Sentence: “The teacher, along with her students, is planning a field trip.”
• Mistake: Some may mistakenly identify “teacher and her students” as the simple subject.
• Correction: The simple subject here is “teacher.” The phrase “along with her students” is a prepositional phrase.

Test Yourself

Find out the simple subject in the following examples.

1. My lovely friends will definitely come this week.
2. The glittery pencils made your assignment so attractive.
3. Red velvet cake is one of my favorite cakes.
4. The long and hard ways will not harm you.
5. In the movie, the super hero saves the whole town.

*Answers at the end.

What Did You Learn?

A simple and a complete subject refer to the main word or words but there is a slight difference between them. A simple subject is the word who performs the action and does not include any modifiers. A complete subject, on the other hand, is the word or words that perform the action and it does include modifiers.

Answers: 1) friends 2) pencils 3) cake 4) ways 5) hero